South America 

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Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, Brazil, Venezuela.
Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana (still a French territory) are perhaps more closely associated with the Caribbean region, as we have already discussed in class.
 

South America, one of the world's major developing regions, is making rapid economic progress. Foreign investments in mining and manufacturing have greatly stimulated development. The region is a major world supplier of tropical agricultural commodities, such as coffee, sugar, and bananas. Wheat, soybeans, wool, and meat come from its cooler temperate regions at higher elevations. Rich deposits of important minerals are found throughout South America. The United States depends heavily on Mexico and Venezuela for much of its supply of petroleum.

The people of South America reflect a variety of ethnic heritage that is unmatched in any other region. Intermarriage among Indians, whites, and blacks has created unique blends of cultures in the region. Traditions inherited from Indians, black slaves, and white immigrants have contributed to a rich regional culture. Music, arts and crafts, foods, religion, architecture, and language all reflect the contributions of American, African, and European heritage.

The environmental diversity of South America is obvious in its landforms and climate. Let us not forget the vast extent of this landmass: roughly as big as Russia, or the US and Canada combined.  It stretches from the tropics (has area on BOTH sides of the equator), through the mid latitudes, all the way down south nearing the polar latitude margins.  Thus, you are already quite familiar with the diversity of climates encompassed across these lands. A relief map of South America such as below, or check a better one from either of your atlases illustrates the wide variety of landforms, with highlands including the Guiana Highlands, the Brazilian Highlands, and the Andes. The Andes are a geologically complex series of folded, faulted, and volcanic peaks that in some places stand single file and in other places divide into multiple ranges that are found at varying distances from one another, offering a series of environmental zones that differ with altitude. The Andes present challenges for transportation of people and goods, and promote isolation.

Why isn't there a single country named The United States of South America? Does topography and climate have anything to do with the continent's settlement pattern? Its population patterns?  How?

The immense Amazon Basin has been carved by the world's mightiest river, the Orinoco River basin is smaller, the product of seasonal rains. The combined valleys of the Paraguay, Parana, and Uruguay rivers empty into the Rio de la Plata (river of silver) estuary. The climates of South America range from the marine tropical realm of the Amazon Basin to the cool, dry Andean altiplano.

South America's History at a Glance

Prior to Spanish and Portuguese conquests, most of South America's population was centered in the Andes Mountains. The Inca civilization thrived in the altiplanos (valleys or basins) of the Andes Mountains and were known for their administrative expertise, as well as their ability to colonize and build. Their empire was vast, yet control was concentrated from a small, tightly woven, elite sector. When the Spanish arrived (along the northwest and west coasts), a takeover at the top administrative levels was enough to take control of the empire. Meanwhile Portuguese armies invaded the areas along the east coast of Brazil, taking over the lands and the local population. The Treaty de Tordesillas (see map below) was a line (running north/south near 50° west longitude) drawn by the Pope to divide the world between Spanish and Portuguese rule (the Spanish ruled the west and the Portuguese the east). Portuguese settlers built plantations along the east coast, which is quite tropical (much like Middle America's Rimland). However, with most of the local population of South America concentrated in the west, there were few Amerindians to act as a labor force. The Portuguese found their labor force in the same source region as many other colonizers of the New World - in Africa.

The European conquest was aided by imported European diseases, by superior weaponry, and by advanced military tactics and technology. It may be that half the Indian population perished from disease before they saw a Spaniard. The smaller Spanish armies brought the zeal and experience of over 700 years of fighting to re-conquer the Iberian peninsula from the Arabs and won most battles with the Indians over incredible odds. Generals such as Cortes and Pizarro were regarded as brilliant military tacticians, administrators, and personalities, despite their modest backgrounds. In 50 years European diseases, military campaigns, and slavery decimated the Indians.

The Spaniards and Portuguese quickly took control of Indian resources. The conquerors deposed Indian leaders and gradually appropriated tribal land and Indian labor in the hacienda and encomienda systems. Indian labor was used in the mines to extract gold and silver for the invading Europeans. The encomienda system was used to reorganize Indian land and redirect their labor toward meeting foreign economic demand for tropical products.

New crops and agricultural techniques were introduced by the Spaniards. In the accessible tropical  coastal lowlands, sugar cane was introduced for export to Europe. Large fields were cleared of their native vegetation and traditional subsistence agriculture and replanted to this single crop that required special care and demanded much additional labor.

The result of Spanish innovations was a change from subsistence to commercial agriculture. The large land holding or encomienda gave rise to a new market orientation that demanded the best available land and used its changed labor, technology, and crops to meet the needs of foreign consumers. In tropical accessible areas, the encomienda evolved into the plantation, producing crops for export, while in moderate climate remote areas the encomienda became the hacienda, producing subsistence crops for local consumption. The loss of Indian labor to disease and overwork prompted the importation of another labor source, Africans, through the "triangle trade" linking Europe, Africa, and the New World. The introduction of a large African population fundamentally altered the character of the Caribbean.

Agricultural change was the tip of the iceberg. The landscape and society of Latin America was fundamentally altered by the Conquest, and the differences persist to the present day. Indian/traditional - subsistence traits are found in some areas, especially rural areas and in such countries as Bolivia, Ecuador, and Guatemala where Indian populations are high. European/modern commercial traits prevail in other places, especially urban areas and such countries as Argentina, Uruguay, and Costa Rica, where people of European origin are in the majority.

The American and French revolutions in the late 1700s helped to ignite a revolt against European colonial powers. The first colony to achieve independence was Haiti in 1804. By 1810, revolts had flared throughout Latin America, and within 15 years freedom had been largely achieved. In Mexico the independence struggle was launched in 1810 by Padre Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla. The liberation of South America was achieved by the forces of Simon Bolivar in the north and Jose de San Martin in the south.

Since independence, most of the nations have suffered periods of instability and tyranny. Revolutions and wars have contributed to the political tumult. Dictatorships have been common in Latin America. Political instability continued into the 20th century, with revolutions occurring in Mexico in 1911, Bolivia in 1952, Cuba in 1959, Chile in 1973, and Nicaragua in 1979. In the late 1970s civil war broke out in El Salvador between the right-wing military and left-wing guerrillas; fighting continued into the 1990s. At the same time, Mexico, Costa Rica, Venezuela, and Colombia moved toward democratic governments. Autocratic governments led by military regimes were common. In elections in 1990 Nicaragua's Marxist Sandinista regime was replaced by a coalition government. General Augusto Pinochet of Chile was the last of South America's military dictators to be replaced by a democratically elected president.

Latin America was/is the world's leading producer of cocaine, marijuana, and heroin destined mostly for the United States and Europe. The huge profits of the illicit drug trade caused widespread government corruption and violence. The United States invaded Panama in December 1989 and captured its leader, Gen. Manuel Antonio Noriega, who was wanted in the United States on drug trafficking charges. In Colombia the powerful Medellin drug cartel was blamed for numerous assassinations, bombings, and other acts of terrorism. In Peru, in an effort to crack down on drug lords and Communist rebels, President Alberto Fujimori suspended the constitution, declared martial law, and had the army arrest political opponents in April 1992.

Although Latin America is a developing region, it has advanced further economically than has either Africa or Asia. It is more highly urbanized and industrialized, and the well-being of its people, as measured by the per capita distribution of the gross national product, is far greater than that existing in other developing areas of Africa and Asia. Most of the nations of Latin America depend highly on income earned from exports. Until about 1960, nearly all these countries relied on the export of only one or two products for most of their foreign income. For example, coffee was the product for Brazil, Colombia, El Salvador, and Guatemala; bananas for Panama and Honduras; sugar for Cuba, Jamaica, and the Dominican Republic; tin for Bolivia; and copper for Chile.

Today, there is a far greater balance in the export trade of these nations. During the 1970s and early 1980s, Mexico and Brazil made the most rapid strides toward industrialization, especially in the diversification of their export trade. Manufactured products now make up more than a fourth of their sales abroad. Both nations have become exporters of automobiles, and Brazil now exports aluminum and iron and steel products to the United States. Since 1973, sharp increases in the price of petroleum have slowed economic progress in Latin America, particularly among the oil-poor nations. In the early 1980s, the unstable price of petroleum, and a worldwide recession, created financial crises even in the oil-rich nations of Venezuela and Mexico

Economic development in Latin America is retarded by both environmental and cultural factors. Environmental barriers such as the Andes and the Amazon rain forest create great cost distances in the transfer of goods. Cultural barriers in language and politics mean great social costs in the communication of ideas.

Massive population growth and redistribution cause additional strain. As a continent that has experienced some of the most rapid population growth in the history of mankind, Latin America has suffered considerable social, economic, and political dislocation. Poverty, one of the more obvious consequences of population-resource imbalance, is evident practically everywhere in this region.

Although agriculture is declining rapidly in relative importance as an economic activity in Latin America, it continues to be the leading source of employment. Exports consist primarily of farm products, except in Brazil, Mexico, and a few mineral-rich nations. However, inefficient agricultural production and the rapid population growth have made the import of foodstuffs increasingly necessary. In many parts of Latin America, most farmers still use traditional agricultural systems of pre-Columbian and African origin. Corn, beans, and squash are primary staples in Central America and Mexico. In the Andes, these products, as well as potatoes and lesser known grains and tubers, are the mainstays of the rural population. In the tropical lowlands, cassava, yams, and other root crops also play a significant role in the diet. More recently, plantains and rice have become important for people living in tropical areas. Peasant farmers grow some specialty crops for local urban markets but produce very little food for export.

Throughout Latin America, governments have introduced programs to reform patterns of land ownership and increase agricultural production. Most of these plans have failed to ease the plight of the rural poor or to increase the supply of food required for rapidly growing populations.

Sugar was one of the early agricultural exports from Latin America. Sugar production became a major enterprise during the 17th century and strengthened the role of slavery in Brazil and the West Indies. In the mid-1800s, native and European laborers were drawn into coffee production in Brazil, Colombia, and Central America. Expanding commercial output followed with a number of major export products, including meat, wool, and grains in Argentina; bananas in Central America; and cotton in Peru, Mexico, and Brazil. More recently, soybeans and sorghums became important in Brazil and Mexico. Through the centuries, income from the export of a succession of agricultural products has supported the economic development of Latin American nations.

However, governments have become increasingly aware of the need to diversify exports and, where possible, to convert raw commodities into finished products. Such products include meal and oil made from fish and soybeans, fabrics and finished clothing manufactured from raw wool and cotton, and instant and freeze-dried coffee produced from coffee beans. The explosive growth of Latin American cities and improvements in the economic well-being of their inhabitants are changing the people's diets. In future years, these changes will probably be reflected by decreasing demands for the types of commodities traditionally produced and consumed by peasant farmers, and by increasing reliance on fruits, vegetables, meat, and dairy products. The dietary change is expected to lead to a transition from traditional peasant agriculture to the practice of modern farming methods and animal husbandry.

Minerals occur largely in the eastern plateaus and in the Andes, and oil and natural gas tend to be found beneath the interior plains of South America. Every nation sharing the eastern flank of the Andes, between Venezuela and the southern tip of Chile, shares in this wealth of oil, but only Ecuador and Venezuela have significant exportable surpluses. Major deposits of oil have also been found in Mexico, which has become one of the world's leading exporters of petroleum products. Oil and natural gas are, by far, Latin America's leading source of export income, providing about a fourth of all revenue from abroad.

International Relations The nations of Latin America share a common heritage that influences the nature of their relationships with other countries. For example, their policies toward European states tend to be the products of long colonial associations with Spain and Portugal, and more recent commercial contacts with Great Britain, France, and Germany. International relations within the Americas are influenced by the powerful presence of the United States. As early as 1821, the Monroe Doctrine established the self-proclaimed right of the United States to protect all Latin American nations from foreign intervention.

The southernmost nations of Chile, Argentina, and Uruguay remain primarily European in outlook. After independence, strong cultural ties with Europe were reinforced by the arrival in those countries of about 4 million European immigrants. Investments, especially from Great Britain, flowed into the region. Economic bonds as well as cultural ties, particularly with Spain and Italy, have been powerful factors in fostering close relationships with Europe. However, the Falkland Islands conflict between Argentina and Great Britain in 1982 seriously strained relations between those two nations (see your Atlas for details if you are unfamiliar with this situation).

Within Latin America, peace has frequently been hampered since World War II by internal conflicts. In 1969 the so-called "soccer war" broke out between El Salvador and Honduras when a soccer match between the two nations resulted in violence and, eventually, armed conflict. Since 1980, Argentina and Chile as well as Peru and Ecuador have approached war over boundary disputes. Bolivia continues to seek an outlet to the sea as the result of its war with Chile between 1879 and 1883. Venezuela and Guatemala persist in their attempts to reacquire territory from neighboring Guyana and Belize.

On the other hand, international and regional organizations have been established to promote political harmony and economic well-being in Latin America. The Organization of American States has been an instrumental force in working for peace and economic cooperation. In March 1991 the presidents of Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay, and Paraguay signed the Treaty of Asuncion, which was to create a common market among their countries by 1995, with the probable participation of Chile This union is now known as Mercosur, a supranational situation very similar to NAFTA.  Colombia, Venezuela, Bolivia, Ecuador, and Peru members of the Andean Pact agreed to form a free trade zone as of January 1992.